Presupposition in Semantics Essay

IntroductionPresupposition is originated in the field of philosophy and it was proposed by German philosopher Ferge in 1892. In the 1960s, presupposition entered the area of linguistics and became a significant concept in semantics. Later in the 1970s, Keenan introduced presupposition to the pragmatics to describe a relation between a speaker and the appropriateness of a sentence in a context (Levinson: 177). Hence, presupposition can be distinguished into two categories: semantic presupposition and pragmatic presupposition. This thesis is mainly centered on the exploration of presupposition in semantics from the perspectives of features and problems of presupposition. For the sake of searching for the solutions to the problems, the writer also brings two pragmatic theories of presupposition into discussion. Part I. Two Approaches to PresuppositionIn the linguistics, two approaches to presupposition are semantic and pragmatic. Semantic presupposition views the sentence relations in terms of truth relations while pragmatic presupposition describes sentences as an interaction between individuals. A.Semantic PresuppositionIn ordinary language, of course, to presuppose something means to assume it, and the narrower technical use in semantics is related to this (Saeed: 93). In semantics, the meaning of a sentence is based on the sentence itself instead of something constructed by the participants. The semantic presupposition is only concerned about the truth value of the statements. For instance,a)John managed to stop in time. b)John tried to stop in time. (Suo: 130)In the example, sentence a) presupposes sentence b), that is to say, if it is true that John managed to stop in time, it must be true that John tried to stop in time. Meanwhile, if this proposition is false, the presupposition that John tried to stop in time still exists. However, only the truth of sentence b) doesn’t tell anything concerning the result whether he stopped in time or not. Based on the analysis, we can draw a truth table for this presupposition:a bT → TF → TT or F ↠ TThis table is an overt description of the truth relations between sentence a) and b). If sentence a) is true, then its presupposition b) is also true. If sentence a) is false, then the truth of b) still survives.  While if sentence b) is true, sentence a) can be either true or false. The interpretation of presupposition in semantics is on the basis of truth relations. B.Pragmatic PresuppositionCompared with semantic presupposition- a truth-relation approach, pragmatic presupposition is an interactional approach in interpreting the sentence relations. Stalnaker argues that presupposition is essentially a pragmatic phenomenon: part of the set of assumptions is made by participants in a conversation, which he terms the common ground (Saeed: 101). This common ground is the mutual knowledge shared by both speaker and hearer. For example, â€Å"I am afraid my car broke down.† The presupposition of this utterance is that the speaker has a car, which is known to the hearer. However, if the hearer originally doesn’t know the fact, on hearing the utterance, s/he can take it as a common ground for a further conversation. By virtue of context, appropriate presupposition will help the hearer understand the utterance of the speaker. During the conversation, both speaker and hearer are doing the turn-taking and they can depend on the former utterances to conduct a smooth communication. By comparison of semantic presupposition and pragmatic presupposition, we can gain a better understanding of this notion applied in the linguistics. However, the focus of this thesis is on the presupposition in the semantics. Thus, the following parts will be concentrated on the semantic presupposition. Part II. Features of Semantic PresuppositionIn semantics, presupposition possesses unique features: being different from entailment, presupposition is stable under negation. It is produced not only by the definite description, but also by presupposition triggers. A.StabilitySemantic presupposition relies on the meaning of words and grammatical structures to describe the truth relations between sentences and these aspects don’t vary too much from context to context. Hence,  presupposition is relatively stable and it remains constant under negation of the main sentence. This feature of semantic presupposition makes a distinction between entailment and presupposition. For example,a)I borrowed my friend’s bike today. b)I borrowed something today. If sentence a) is true, it guarantees the truth of sentence b), to be more specific, a) entails b). However, if we negate a) to form a’) then it no longer entails b), repeated as follows:a’) I didn’t borrow my friend’s bike today. b’) I borrowed something today. If it is false that I borrowed my friend’s bike today, it can not tell whether I borrowed something today or not. It might be true that I borrowed something instead of my friend’s bike, but we just don’t know. In contrast, the presupposing sentence is constant even under negation, for instance, c)My sister got married last year. d)I have a sister. The pre-condition of sentence c) is d), if c) is true then d) must be taken as a fact. In other words, sentence c) has the presupposition in d) and the truth of c) makes sure the truth of d) as well. If negating c) as â€Å"My sister didn’t get married last year.† The presupposition that â€Å"I have a sister† also survives. This is the difference between entailment and presupposition, namely, the negation of an entailing sentence leads to the failure of the entailment while negating a presupposing sentence allows the presupposition to survive. B.Presupposition TriggersOn the one hand, the existence of presupposition can derive from the use of a name or definite description. On the other hand, it  can be produced by particular words or sentence constructions, which are called presupposition triggers. Karttunen has collected thirty-one kinds of triggers but in the following section the writer will mainly focus on four types of these triggers: factive verbs, change of state verbs, temporal clauses and cleft sentences. To begin with, verbs like â€Å"regret,† â€Å"deplore,† â€Å"know† and â€Å"agree† are under the category of factive verbs, for they presuppose the truth of the complement clause. For instance,a)Martha regrets/ doesn’t regret drinking John’s home brew. b)Martha drank John’s home brew. (Suo: 131)Whether Martha regrets drinking John’s home brew or not, it is a known fact that Martha drank John’s home brew. The sentence a) has the presupposition in b). By contrast, no such presupposition exists with the non-factive verb like â€Å"think.† For example,c)Tom thought that John was late. d)John was late. Sentence c) indicates that it is only Tom’ personal opinion of John’s being late. Actually, John might not be late and the truth doesn’t reveal from the sentence itself. Therefore, sentence c) doesn’t have the presupposition in d) due to the non-factive verb â€Å"think.†Secondly, the employments of verbs like â€Å"stop,† â€Å"start,† â€Å"begin† and â€Å"finish† imply the change of state. Hence, these lexical triggers are regarded as change of state verbs, which describe the new state and presuppose the former state as well. For instance,a)John stopped/ didn’t stop beating his wife. b)John had been beating his wife. (Suo: 131)The verb â€Å"stop† means making something end and here if John stopped beating his wife, which means that he makes the action of beating his wife end. But if he didn’t stop, the occasion of beating will continue to happen in the future. No matter what the situation is, sentence a) presupposes the fact b) that John had been beating his wife as the former state. What’s more, not only the lexical words trigger the presupposition, but also clauses like temporal clauses may produce presupposition. For example,a)Linda went to the supermarket before she met her friends. b)Linda met her friends. The temporal clause marked by the conjunction â€Å"before† shows that Linda went to the supermarket first and then went to meet her friends. In effect, sentence a) states the fact that Linda really met her friends. It is this temporal clause that ensures the truth of sentence b) and also triggers the presupposition in b). Last but not least, syntactic structure such as cleft sentence can also act as a trigger for the production of certain types of presupposition. For example,a)It was the noise that annoyed me. b)What annoyed me was the noise. c)Something annoyed me. In the example, the cleft construction in a) and the pseudo-cleft in b) share the presupposition in c). No matter how the sentence structure changes, the essence of the sentence remains unchanged. What sentence a) and b) intend to stress is that there is something annoyed me. By means of the features like stability and presupposition triggers, the real intention of the utterances can be investigated. If the speaker changes the predicate â€Å"has† to â€Å"hasn’t,† or â€Å"does† to â€Å"doesn’t,† the presupposition for the utterance is the same, for presupposition is of stability. Presupposition triggers can be used as a tool to present the essence of the sentence, no matter what lexical words and constructions are applied. Part III. Problems of Semantic PresuppositionIn semantics, this truth-based approach gives rise to problems for the presupposition, such as, presupposition failure, the defeasibility of presupposition and the  projection problem. A.Presupposition FailureOn the basis of truth condition, it has been taken for granted that a name or definite description being used refers to the existent entity in the field of semantics. However, if the named or described entity doesn’t exist, it causes problem for this truth-relation approach, which is known as presupposition failure. The following example is by now the most discussed one in this literature:a)The King of France is bald. b)There is a King of France. (Saeed: 96)According to the criterion of truth relation, no doubt sentence a) presupposes sentence b), if it is true that there is a King of France. But if there is no King of France, that is to say, the sentence b) is false, the problem is aroused, for it is uncertain whether this presupposition survives or not. Are the sentences like a) true or false, or just in a gray area, neither true nor false? This dubious situation for truth-based approach results in the truth value gap. For such a problem, Russell offers a famous solution to make an analysis of this definite description as three expressions as follows:The King of France is bald is true if and only if:a)at least one thing is the kingb)at most one thing is the kingc)whatever is the king is bald. (Saeed: 97)From the Russell’s analysis, we know that if there is no King of France, it leads to the falsity of this proposition that the King of France is bald. Thus, there is no gray area between true or false, no truth value gap. However, it seems to be too complex to employ these preconditions for the explanation of one name and it may cost great efforts to analyze the preconditions whenever meet with such kind of statements. In comparison with truth relation approach, it may be less problematic for an interactional approach. During the communication between the individuals, whenever an unfamiliar name or definite description occurs, the hearer can interrupt the speaker so as to signal the failure of the conversation. For instance, the speaker says to someone, â€Å"Mr. Hong will invite us to dinner next Friday.† If the hearer doesn’t know Mr. Hong, it may cause confusion. As the conversation continues, the hearer can ask the speaker who Mr. Hong  is. As for the speaker, s/he can take an immediate response to clear up the misunderstanding. The presupposition failure in semantics results from the narrow question of the truth value of statements about non-existent entities, while in pragmatics, the attention is paid to the more general question of what conventions license a speaker’s referring use of name or definite description. B.DefeasibilityOne of the peculiar things about presupposition is that it is sensitive to context, either immediate linguistic context or the less immediate discourse context, or in circumstances where contrary assumptions are made. In particular context, the presupposition is cancelled and this phenomenon is known as defeasibility. Two factors result in presupposition cancellation: one is the linguistic context and the other one is background assumption about the world. One kind of presupposition defeasibility arises in certain types of linguistic context. For example,You say that someone in this room loves Mary. Well maybe so. But it certainly isn’t Fred who loves Mary. And it certainly isn’t John . . . (We continue in this way until we have enumerated all the people in the room). Therefore no one in this room loves Mary. (Suo: 135)In the example, each of the cleft sentences (it certainly isn’t Fred, etc.) are supposed to presuppose that there is someone in this room who loves Mary, for presupposition is constant under negation. However, the speaker intends to persuade the hearer that there is no one in this room who loves Mary by ruling out the possibilities. Therefore, the presupposition that someone in this room loves Mary is defeated in this counterfactual assumption. Here is another example of the same kind:a)John didn’t manage to pass his exams. b)John tried to pass his exams. c)John didn’t manage to pass his exams. In fact he didn’t even try. Sentence a) has the presupposition in b), but if put a) into such a statement as c), the prior presupposition is abandoned. Without knowing the real fact, if someone makes the utterance that John didn’t manage to pass his exams, it may leave the hearer an impression that at least once he tried to pass his exams. On hearing the fact the hearer will know John’s failure for the exams is due to his lack of efforts in his study. Thus, the presupposition can be cancelled within certain contexts. The other kind of presupposition defeasibility is caused by our general knowledge of the world. For instance,a)She cried before she finished her thesis. b)She finished her thesis. (Saeed: 187)As mentioned above, the temporal clause functions as a trigger for the presupposition. Sentence a) with before-clause presupposes that indeed she finished her thesis. However, if the verb in the main clause is changed to â€Å"die,† the situation will be totally different. For instance,c)She died before she finished her thesis. d)She finished her thesis. (Saeed: 187)Since her death preceded the event of finishing her thesis, it is certain that she never finished the thesis. It is common sense that people do not conduct things after they die. Even if sentence c) is expressed with before-clause, it doesn’t have the presupposition in d). As a result of background belief in the real world, the previous presupposition that she finished her thesis is blocked in this context. C.Projection ProblemLangendoen and Savin suggest that the set of presuppositions of the complex whole is the simple sum of the presuppositions of the parts, i.e. if S0 is a complex sentence containing sentences S1, S2, . . . Sn as constituents, then the presuppositions of S0 = the presuppositions of S1 + the presuppositions of S2 . . . + the presuppositions of Sn (Levinson: 191). For example,S0: John stopped accusing Mary of beating her husband. S1: John accused Mary of beating her husband. S1†²: John judged that it was bad for Mary to beat her husband. S2: John stopped doing it. S2†²: Before time T, John did it. (Suo: 136)In the example, sentence S0 is the complex sentence including two parts S1 and S2, to be more specific, from the statement that John stopped accusing Mary of beating her husband, two meanings can be interpreted: one is that John accused Mary of beating her husband and the other one is that John stopped doing it. The presupposition of S1 is S1†², namely, S1 presupposes that John judged that it was bad for Mary to beat her husband. While S2 has the presupposition in S2†², that is to say, S2 presupposes that before time T, John did it. Thus, the presuppositions of S0 are the presupposition of S1 plus the presupposition of S2. As a matter of fact, this simple solution to the presuppositions of complex sentences is far from correct and it turns out to be impossible to take it as a formula. By using this solution, it is difficult to predict exactly which presuppositions of the parts survive in the whole presupposition of the complex sentences. This compositional problem is called the projection problem for the presuppositions. The projection problem in the presuppositions has two aspects: on the one hand, presuppositions remain in the linguistic context while entailments disappear. On the other hand, presuppositions are cancelled in certain contexts where entailments survive. The first aspect of the projection problem is the survival of presuppositions and cancellation of entailments in the same context. As mentioned above, negation is a typical example for the distinction between presupposition and entailment, for presupposition is stable under negation while entailment isn’t. However, there are other situations in which presupposition remains  and entailment disappears. For instance,a)Mr. Brown bought four books. b)There is a Mr. Brown. c)Mr. Brown bought three books. d)It is possible that Mr. Brown bought four books. e)Mr. Brown could have bought four books. In this example, sentence a) presupposes sentence b) and entails sentence c). If it is true that Mr. Brown bought four books, the precondition for this proposition that there is a Mr. Brown must also be true. And if he already bought four books, he is supposed to have bought three books. However, when the modal operators or modal verbs are embedded in the original statement, the entailment of a) disappears while the presupposition b) still exists. Because modal operators like â€Å"possible,† â€Å"probable† and modal verbs like â€Å"could,† â€Å"should† are considered to be a kind of conjecture. The employments of them reveal speaker’s uncertainty about his utterances. Another situation of the same kind is the compound sentences formed by the connectives â€Å"and,† â€Å"or,† â€Å"if . . . then† and what not. For instance,a)The two students handed in the homework late again this Monday. b)A student handed in the homework late this Monday. c)The two students handed in the homework late before. d)If the two students handed in the homework late again this Monday, their teacher will get angry. The adverb â€Å"again† applied in the sentence a) presupposes that the two students handed in the homework late before. If two students handed in the homework late, it must entail that one of them handed in the homework late. Thus, sentence a) presupposes c) and also entails b). However, if sentence  a) is embedded in a complex sentence like d), the utterance a) can only be regarded as an assumption in the complex whole. Hence, the former entailment is abandoned in the new compound sentence but the presupposition that they did before still survives. The other aspect of the projection problem is that presupposition is blocked while entailment still exists in certain contexts. If the predicates of the utterances are the verbs of propositional attitude such as â€Å"want,† â€Å"believe,† â€Å"imagine,† â€Å"dream† and the like, the blocking of presupposition appears to take place. For instance,a)Tom believes he’s the president of America. b)There is a present president of America. In this example, sentence a) entails that Tom believes something, but it doesn’t have the presupposition that there is a present president of America. The verb like â€Å"believe† is only a non-factive verb, which doesn’t ensure the truth of its complement. Moreover, the employment of it will leave the hearer an impression that what the speaker says is just a personal opinion. Thus, the presupposition is blocked because of the verb â€Å"believe.†Another example is given as follows:a)I dreamed that I was a German and that I regretted being a German. b)I was a German. In the sentence a), the speaker doesn’t shoulder the responsibility of uttering it by employing the verb â€Å"dream.† The application of â€Å"dream† indicates that this utterance can not be taken seriously as a fact. However, sentence a) still entails that â€Å"I dreamed something,† but doesn’t presuppose that â€Å"I was a German.† In such a situation, the complex sentences with certain verbs of propositional attitude block their presuppositions but maintain the entailments. By means of analyzing the problems of presupposition in the field of semantics, we can draw a conclusion that this truth relation approach is far  from adequate to describe the relationships between presupposing and presupposed sentences. Admittedly, the issue of presupposition is not only being discussed in semantics but also in the pragmatics. Part IV. Pragmatic Theories of PresuppositionAs for pragmatic presupposition, various theories have been put forward by linguists such as Stalnaker, Gazdar and what not. Among these theories, two of them are the most developed theories that deal with the defeasibility and the projection problems. Both theories assume that presuppositions are part of the conventional meaning of expressions, instead of semantic inference. The first theory has been developed by Karttunen and Peters, which is expressed in the framework of Montague grammar. In the Montague grammar, clauses are built up from their constituents from the bottom up rather than from the top down as in transformational generative grammar (Levinson: 207). The basic idea in this theory is that sentences are built up from their components and the meanings conveyed in these sentences are subject to the words, clauses and so on, but in the presuppositions, meanings are associated with these triggers. According to Karttunen and Peters’ theory, presuppositions are actually non-cancellable. The meaning expressions that capture the presuppositional content of each presupposition-triggering item will be related with each constituent a heritage expression. If there is a predicate like propositional attitude verb, it will have a heritage expression that blocks the presuppositions ascending to be presupposition of the whole sentence. In such circumstances, presupposition isn’t in fact cancelled, but it is blocked during the process of derivation by the heritage expression. For example,a)Bush thinks that Kerry’s attitude about terrorism is dangerous. b)Kerry has an attitude about terrorism. The subordinate clause of sentence a) presupposes that Kerry has an attitude about terrorism. However, the verb â€Å"think† has the heritage expression which prevents this presupposition from being the presupposition of the whole. The other theory is proposed by Gazdar, in which presuppositions are actually cancelled. At the early stage of derivation, the presuppositions of any complex sentence will consist of all the potential presuppositions of the parts. Then a canceling mechanism will begin to work and it only selects these presuppositions which are consistent with all the propositions already in the context. In this theory, the generations of presuppositions adhere to a special order: first the entailments of what are said are added to the context, then the conversational implicatures, and only finally the presupposition (Levinson: 213). In each step, these presuppositions that contradict the former propositions will be eliminated through selection and only the ones being consistent with them will survive. For example,a)If there is a King of France, the King of France doesn’t any longer live in Versaills. b)The speaker knows that there exists a King of France. c)It is consistent with all the speaker knows that there is not a King of France. (Suo: 143)In the sentence a), the clause that â€Å"the King of France doesn’t any longer live in Versaills† has the potential presupposition in b). However, the conditional sentence a) entails that there is not a King of France. Based on the special order in Gazdar’s theory, this entailment enters into the context before the potential presupposition. Hence, this potential presupposition is cancelled without entering into the context. Although the two theories are opposing to each other, both of them offer an explanation for the defeasibility of presupposition and projection problem. However, even in the field of pragmatics, adequate solution to the presupposition is not obtained, which needs further developments. ConclusionIn the field of linguistics, we can probe into the presupposition from two perspectives, namely, semantic presupposition and pragmatic presupposition. This thesis mainly focuses on the interpretation of presupposition in semantics. The writer introduces the features of semantic presupposition like stability under negation and presupposition triggers and then makes an analysis of the problems aroused by this truth-based theory  such as presupposition failure, defeasibility and projection problem. To solve these problems, two theories concerning the pragmatic presupposition are discussed. Although both of them offer the explanations for the problems of presupposition, they are not considered to be adequate solutions. The further developments of presupposition rely on the complex interactions between semantics and pragmatics. References Levinson, Stephen C. Pragmtics. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press, 2005. Saeed, John I. Semantics. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press, 2005.

Justifications on the Need to Bring Back the Military Draft Essay

In today’s evolving and trying world, there is nothing absolute about the exercise of individual’s freedom or free choice. Consideration of several significant factors results to flexibility, if not violation of even this basic requirement of independence or free will. The said condition is concretely manifested by a discussion on the necessity to bring back the military draft in the United States. This is because despite the fundamental argument against the reimplementation of the Selective Service System in the American military, it is ultimately essential to reflect on some principles aimed at benefiting the majority of the population hence paving the way for a requirement to set aside one’s liberty or rights. By its nature, a military draft or the American Selective Service System implies an infringement of citizen’s free choice of whether to join the United States military voluntarily or not. The system is not new as it has been implemented by previous administrations. However, criticisms against its execution made the past Presidents halt the controversial military draft on the premise that it violates human rights particularly one’s privilege to a freedom of choice as far as joining the military. As the system was not totally discarded, there is now the possibility of imposing again the military draft after careful deliberation of at least three main necessary justifications. Proponents of the re-imposition of the system argue the underlying principle that military draft challenges freedom. This is primarily due to the vital reason that the military draft serves as a payback opportunity for the government and country in general to raise the estimated usefulness and value of all citizens. This is made possible because the people’s selective services into the military will increase benefits or returns which the government needs in having an expensive cost of military training and education. Additionally, the military draft paves the way and has even proven to be a concrete way of unifying the country as it destroys class and racial distinctions among Americans. Most importantly, military draft is critically important in ensuring national defense and security in the face of an inevitable military conflict. While the system is an obligatory manner of breaching one’s liberty, these economic, unifying and safety considerations are, therefore, rational principles which justify the need to undertake another round of military draft. Military Draft, an Overview For a clearer and objective discussion on the need to bring back the military draft, it is empirical to present the general concepts behind the system which calls for the selective services of American people into the U. S. military. Military draft, as the main function and basis of the Selective Service System, is activated upon the direction of the U. S. President and the Congress. As mandated by law, the Selective Service System maintains its promptness and effectiveness in managing a military draft despite its current inactive status. Upon the restoration of the military draft, the system requires for the carrying out of a National Draft Lottery to identify the people to be drafted. In the conduct of the military draft, the Selective Service System requires the registration of all male American citizens with at least 18 years of age but had not reached 26 years of age, not taking into consideration their place of their residences including foreign male migrant-residents in the country (â€Å"Military Draft†). The U. S.  President and the both houses of the Congress authorize the military draft during an emergency such as armed crisis which entails additional military crowd because of the insufficiency in the supply of the volunteer military. Thereafter, a lottery is conducted wherein the dates of birth of the citizens are used as the basis for finding out the system of drafting the citizens. Duties of all members of the Selective Service are activated where the State Directors and Officers of the Reserve Forces are called into for military service. There will be physical, psychological and ethical assessments of all registrants and upon release of evaluation result, a registrant will have to report for if he needs to be exempted or that his service needs to be deferred. Registrant claims will be evaluated and passers will be given induction orders and are given ten days to be inducted until finally turned over to the military (â€Å"Military Draft†). Benefit Justification While not commonly attributed as justification for the need to restore the military draft, the beneficial aspect of carrying out the system is significantly essential. A study about the draft or conscription of American citizens into the military and its increasing returns revealed this condition. This is because the noteworthy mounting returns, such as the requirement for the least fundamental training and education in the military preparation and service, are attractive grounds behind the selective service or military draft (Ng 382). While the draft inevitably results into incompetence, freedom violation and injustice, the study showed that the effectiveness of military draft in recording the increasing returns in the U. S.  Armed Forces compensates the cost allotted in carrying out the military draft. The study further justified that in the condition where the level of mounting returns was elevated and that the needed degree of military service became big particularly when the nation is at war, the popularity and requirement of military draft could not be totally eliminated. The same study also noted the economists’ apparent disregard of the principle behind the probable appeal of military draft and reiterated the result which hinted that the efficiency percentage of military draft soars as the level of increasing returns in the U.  S. military also becomes high. To concretely justify this point, it just merely presented an idea that an increase in the degree or number of military drafts is synonymous to having an increased in the number of military personnel thereby working more to the advantage of the U. S. Armed Force in its military undertakings (383). Unifying Justification Despite circumstances which made previous Presidents decide to discontinue the military draft, the system definitely helps in crushing class distinctions in the country. Hence, this unifying justification makes it one of the positive points for considering the return of the selective or random military recruitment. In particular, the military draft resulted into an amicable educational condition where the educated and not became united and even helped each other as they became one in achieving a common goal. In fact, this homogenizing system did not only exist in the learning structure because military draft also widened the cultural perspectives of the military draftees. As the class distinctions were removed so are the racial separations among the future military personnel. In short, the selective service system enhanced the equality grounds in the country as compared to what has achieved by other measures and institutions (Koch A23). Koch emphasized the need for the nation to return to the military draft after it proved to be an established means which returned unity among people and within the country. The selective service system provided a universal language for the public which covered the military draftees as well as their respective families and the people around them. It also credited the honor among the draftees and leveled their respective sacrifices which they have done for the nation. It eventually unified more the American people who are one in their search for power and thereafter carry with them an appreciation of the real value of conflict, unity and winning (Koch A23). National Security Justification Foremost the positions of bringing back the military draft is the rationale that it prepares and secures the country for an eventuality of another armed conflict, both internally and externally. This was illustrated by Hod and Hod when he ignited the call for the return of the military draft in the name of defending and ensuring the safety of the country. In a work directed to the public, Hod and Hod wrote that the military draft also prepares the nation and its people to see the world in a precautionary aspect. Ultimately, it was meant to pave the way for the upholding of the nation’s protection and safety against possible armed conflict within and outside the country (Hod & Hod 73). This national security position was corroborated by Rangel and Vennochi who both supported the need for the restoration of the military draft. As a Korean War veteran and now a U. S, Representative, Rangel believed that the requirement to defend and secure the country should be a shared sacrifice among all Americans. He added that a renewed call for the system enables for an increased vigilance and acceptance of the random military system as the people appreciate more the draft based from the safety benefits it will bring to the country (Rangel 1). Vennochi, supported the idea by stressing a point wherein the military draft will speed up the country’s armed fight against Iraq and other terrorists-laden nations. He added that restoring the military draft will awaken the country and force involvement among Americans to have their share in protecting and ensuring the nation’s security (Venocchi 1). Conclusion Every undertaking has its advantages and disadvantages. Despite criticisms against the military draft, its restoration is definitely important and needed in order to increase the benefits it offer to the nation, to break barriers and enhance unity among people and ultimately to guarantee that the country in always ready and capable to defend itself from conflict. While the issue of military draft has resulted into several criticisms, it was able to stand its way and justified that it may be inevitable for the country not to bring back military draft primarily due to the position that it was aimed at working to the advantage and not to detriment the people and the country as a whole.

Leadership and Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Leadership and Culture - Essay Example This editing paper mostly focuses on leadership, teamwork and collaboration of these. The researcher describes that they are not only vital components to the success of an organization, but also to the creation of the culture of the organization. Culture refers to the personality of an organization, and allows a group of people to address concerns and challenges that arise within the organization. This organizational culture forms as a result of members coming together with the common goal of successfully running their business and is primarily generated through communication. Language, stories, and rituals are used to form distinguishing group cultures and accomplish a shared vision that all employees can grasp. Teamwork and collaboration and their differences were analyzed in this editing. A team consists of two or more individuals with particular roles that are implemented to meet a valued goal. The collaboration term is when the parties involved share the responsibilities of comb ining the duties of the teams. However, the primary characteristic that they share is that teams must gradually come together to create a finished product, which is done under such collaboration. In conclusion, the researcher refers to several examples to describe how an organization grows and culture is formed and why teamwork shifts seamlessly to collaboration. The two cannot exist independently, the researcher states, but rely on each other if the organization desires to be successful.

Portfolio Optimization using Linear, Non-linear and Integer Research Proposal

Portfolio Optimization using Linear, Non-linear and Integer programming and Black-schole theroy - Research Proposal Example Portfolio optimization dwells on the improvement of the portfolio and improving the value and level of the stock portfolio to that which proves attractive to the market. The criterion allows for the combination of the various aspects either directly or indirectly. The optimization aspect allows for the analysis of the expected value and the rate of return and their dispersion. The dispersion looks at the distribution of the rate of return to the stock adding value to it and through these measures, the financial risks also undergo analysis to provide evidence and confidence in the investors. It’s through portfolio optimization that investors understand the various risks existing in the market that allows them. Portfolio optimization will require identification of a portfolio that is rich in diversification to ensure it provides good support to the portfolio. Following the yahoo finance, the following portfolio was considered. Considering the modern portfolio theory as developed by Harry Markowitz, standard deviation of the various portfolios and its rate of return as means of maximizing the expected returns are considered for the risks that may engulf the portfolio. These provide an efficient portfolio. Considering the trade-off between the risks involved with the expected returns that the portfolio covers. Considering the historical factors of the stocks provides the investors with better decisions on the direction of the stock overtime. These based on the curves on the value of the stocks, its prices and volumes traded. Considering the standard deviation, the volatility of the stock, and the stock prices and volumes provides a better position on the stock. Considering these enables, the investors provide a better response to their portfolio needs. Considering the initial portfolio selection, the following portfolio is

Marketing Report Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Marketing Report - Research Paper Example This implies that in production, a company needs to have a clear understanding of its customers in relation to the things they need and an analysis of the most preferred size of the commodity. A good product that is acceptable in the market is able to win the confidence of customers and they are easily going to buy it from the market. Production and sale of Dove Soap Bar is one of its kinds because it has put into consideration the needs of the customers and this has made it very competitive in the market and has led many customers to neglect other brands of bar soaps to adopt it. Table of Contents Executive summary†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦2 Table of content†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..3 Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.4 Supply Side Analysis†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦4 Demand Analysis†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦5 Segmentation and Targeting†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.......6 Comp etitor Identification and Analysis†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦......7 Competitive Advantage of Dove Soap Bar †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.8 References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.10 Introduction Dove Soap Bar contains some ingredients that make it good for bathing for people of different ages and sexes, who value skin protection. This is because in production of the bar soap, the producer focuses on giving people a quality product that has most of the things they like and need in a soap. The soap has different qualities that are physical and chemica l, which add value to it as soap sold in a market that has other varieties. Dove Soap Bar is produced with some diversity so that it can capture different people in the market and have them buy it according to their preferences dictated by their health and socialization (Raju, 1995, p53). Dove Soap Bar appears in the market with different qualities that make it preferable among other soaps in the market. The physical qualities of the soap is that it has sweet blue fig and orange blossom scent which makes it to attract people because it is friendly to them. It also appears in different colors, which include; blue, white, orange and pink, to attract different class of people to whom colors are important in determining the choices they make for products. In this respect, people choose the Dove Soap Bar according to these physical qualities, which manifest without a need for detailed evaluation on its properties. Dove Soap Bar has different properties that make the customers to prefer i t as compared to others that serve similar purposes to the people. For example, the property that it moisturizes after taking a bath with it and leaves the skin feeling soft and smooth makes it a preferable product for different people in the market (Parker, 2006, p57). Supply Side Analysis The supply of the Dove Soap Bar happens from an industry that produces it and presents the orders to customers make from the company. In the US, customers who come from within the industry have ease of access from the shops in the area and different retail opening in the area which supply consumer products in small quantities (Jacoby, 2010, p31). The supply of Dove Soap Bar is established in that it has two main channels i.e. from the industry to consumers and from the industry

Comparative Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Comparative Justice - Essay Example tries to delve into the basis of the US legal system, it becomes lucidly clear that the US legal system as per the Judi-Christian tradition, traces its origins in relation to some divine power. The US notions of justice, fairness and honesty have their moorings in the Biblical texts. Similarly, the Islamic law traces its origins to the Holy Quran and the Islamic legal system believes law to be an expression of the will of God (Terrill, 2009). The other pivotal fact is that the US legal system tends to employ the tool of law to shape a specific type of society that is in consonance with the essential American values and ethics. In other words, In America, the law is also considered to be a means of shaping and constructing a desirable society. In that context, the purpose of Islamic law is also the same. The Islamic law also intends to shape a society that is in consonance with the quintessential Islamic values, ethics and aspirations. However, there exist also marked differences between the Islamic legal system and the US legal system. The US legal system tends to guide and restrain the actions of its denizens within a defined social domain. In contrast, the Islamic legal system not only pertains to the legal rights and obligations of its citizens but also tends to define their ethical aspirations. In other words an Islamic legal system not only governs as to what its citizens could do, but also defines as to what they cannot do (Terrill, 2009, p. 612). The second thing is that the US legal system is subservient to the requirements of the time and social circumstances that is the US law is open to relative interpretations. However, the Islamic legal system considers Sharia to be an expression of the will of God that is sacrosanct and unchangeable in all times and societies (Terrill, 2009, p. 598). As per the Islamic legal system, it is not the law that is subservient to the requirements of the society, but rather it is the society that is to mould itself as per

Joint Venture entry mode of Marks and Spencer in China Essay

Joint Venture entry mode of Marks and Spencer in China - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that entering into a new market has been commonly accounted as one of the major challenges faced by companies seeking the benefits of internationalization market expansion. In its course to diversify in the global plethora, the company needs to deal with many barriers including cross-border trade regulations, cultural paradoxes and various other socio-economic factors that are deemed to influence business operations in the targeted host country. Contextually, entering into the market of China also posed considerable challenges to Marks & Spencer (M&S), which is a renowned British multinational retail chain. Critics have thereon argued that it is fundamentally owing to lack of market understanding and appropriate strategies adopted by companies to mark its failure in Asian countries like China. Several challenges and problems encompass the entry of M&S in the market of China. With the opening of their first outlet in the Chinese market, the company experienced a dip in its performance, which was accounted as considerably lower than the expected level in the Chinese market. The outlets opened by M&S, at the initial phases of its operations in the Mainland China, failed to satisfy the needs of the Chinese local customers owing to the company’s lacuna to identify customers’ preferences in the market and offer services accordingly. For instance, the M&S stores were unable to provide garments of smaller sizes, as preferred by the customers in China. (Wood, 2012). Reportedly, the supply chain of the company was also lacking its usual effectiveness, which further inhibited the reputation of the company in the Chinese market, at its introductory phase. Additionally, it was also known that the management of the retail chain was implementing its strategic experiences gained from its operations in Hong Kong, irrespective of the fact that the consumer buying behaviour are found to be considerably distinct in these two regions. This again depicts the lack of market survey of the company taking into account the tastes and preferences of customers in the host country (China Retail News, 2009). In addition, the decisions taken by the company for not collaborating with any of the local firms in China, i.e. ignoring the benefits of JV also barricaded the utmost efficiency of its strategies by restricting the cooperation of local firms to a certain extent. It was thus considered as a mistake made by M&S, which retarded its smooth entry in the Chinese market. However the company focused on concentrating on its size and range of services offered to the Chinese customers as its major Unique Selling Propositions (USPs). Subsequently, the first shop of the company was opened in the Mainland and was propounded to be one of the biggest shopping centres in Asia. Nonetheless, this decision of the company came as a surprise for many investors in the stock market, as opening of the store came just after the global economic turmoil that kept investors wondering regarding the finances of M&S. It has also been noted that competition level from the local marketers were observed to be quite h igh in this area, as the local retailers are more competent in serving the customers in the market providing products preferred by customers of lower age groups and lower income groups. On the contrary, it would be vital to mention that the products

Choose two or three research studies in an area of interest to you Essay

Choose two or three research studies in an area of interest to you describe the research methods used and critically discuss the - Essay Example The paper critically evaluates three research papers on inclusion of special needs students in classrooms and reflects research methods used in these studies. In addition, the paper evaluates document review and observation as data collection methods used in the studies. Introduction Research adopts two key approaches that include qualitative and quantitative methods that have different data collection ways according to each technique. Qualitative research is often considered exploratory and is useful in getting a deeper understanding of issues of interest as well as exploring nuances associated with the current problem. On the other hand, quantitative research is definite in its point because it tries to compute problems and comprehend the way to prevent them by looking for the scheme of results in a large population. Quantitative research involves collection and conversion of data into numerical form in order to make statistical calculation and draw conclusions. Qualitative researc h is associated with social constructivism paradigm that emphasises socially constructed reality since it involves inductive and deductive means that develop theory for a pattern of meaning based on collected data. Qualitative data collection and analysis allows great flexibility compared to quantitative research since data is collected in textual form based on observation and interaction with participants. Moreover, data collection in qualitative research can be carried in several stages as opposed to one stage collection of data in quantitative research. Qualitative research uses methods that give participants a degree of freedom instead of forcing the participants to select pre-determined responses because this technique allows them the atmosphere to express themselves. This indicates that qualitative research technique adopts a less formal and less rigid approach compared to the approach used in quantitative research. Although, qualitative research involves a small number of par ticipants and high degree of flexibility, the approach is not â€Å"less scientific â€Å"compared to quantitative research that involves more subjects and is often carried in a rigid manner. Pragmatic or mixed methods approach to science involves the use of methods that appear suited for research problem since they have the freedom to use any techniques associated with qualitative or quantitative research. Any single approach regardless of whether it is qualitative or quantitative, has its limitations hence the different approaches complement one another. Mixing different approaches has advantages since it allows use of various sources of data from different researchers and different perspectives for enabling interpretation of results, as well as multiple techniques for studying research problem because qualitative and quantitative methods are utilised simultaneously (Alzheimer Europe, 2012). This paper evaluates three research articles that demonstrate their findings through res earch strategies, even though they use different data collection methods. One of the study articles uses observation, while another one uses document reviews and the last one uses a rating scale. Background of the articles’ critique begins by evaluating the various data collection m

Incremental Advances in WTO Negotiations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Incremental Advances in WTO Negotiations - Essay Example Agricultural Export Subsidies and Cotton The final declaration requires elimination of agricultural export subsidies by 2013, a date agreed to the European Union (EU). The EU is important to be considered here as it accounts for about 90 percent of such spending. The US along with the developing countries were thinking on lines of 2010 as a deadline as they believed it could suffice better progress. The declaration requires elimination of export subsidies on cotton maximum by 2006. this issue is particularly important for West Africa. The U.S. Congress is likely to repeal U.S. cotton export subsidies already, in order to come in line with an adverse WTO dispute-settlement panel ruling. It would accord them duty-free, quota-free access to cotton from the lesser developed countries. However, this can practically only take effect once implementation starts on any final agreement reached in the Doha negotiations. It states as an objective that any negotiated cuts in domestic support spending for cotton farmers in countries that have such programs would have to go deeper and be put into practice faster than any other domestic agricultural subsidy cuts. The U.S. delegation worked intensively with mediators from Burkina Faso, Benin, Mali, Chad and Senegal; countries that had threatened to block any Doha agreement without acceptable resolution of the cotton issue. Everyone wants to reduce subsidies and eventually eliminate subsides in agricultural goods, was the general impression at the conference. But here was the argument whether this should be true for all agriculture except cotton, or otherwise. Ultimately, cotton has finally been placed with the rest of its agriculture fraternity. Duty-Free, Quota-Free Market Access The declaration requires the provision of duty-free and quota-free market access for most products from the 32 least-developed countries by 2008 or no later than the start of the implementation period of any agreement. It requires such access for at least 97 percent of products as that fall in line with the tariff schedule. The United States had pressed for exceptions to duty-free, quota-free for specific products that already trade competitively on the global market. The United States has not decided on what products it might exclude from duty-free, quota-free treatment.Sugar may or may not be one possibility.Earlier in the week it was suggested that other possible exclusions, including certain competitive textile products from Bangladesh and Cambodia may be considered. The Doha negotiations have languished almost since they were launched in 2001, with an impasse over politically difficult agriculture issues blocking most other progress. By the end of 2006, they are scheduled to conclude a deadline of sorts for the United States, which has trade negotiating authority from Congress only until

Kanoa K. Essay Example for Free

Kanoa K. Essay Kanoa K. is by far one of the most unforgettable characters of my life. He is not only my boyfriend, he is my best friend, someone I know would help me through difficult times, and someone who has helped me through tough times. If Kanoa were a fictional character, it would be very difficult to determine whether he is a believable character. He is one of the most perfect and awesome people I know, making him unbelievable. Kanoa is always helping his friends and me; he has a kind heart and is a good person, which is something I only truly find in a few individuals. Another thing that makes Kanoa an unbelievable character is his uniqueness. He is not your ordinary boy, Kanoa is masculine yet sensitive; he knows himself very well and is different from most. Kanoa is a â€Å"skater† but isn’t a jerk, punk or fool, I believe that this is because he knows what he is and what he’s not, he doesn’t let stereotypes get to him. It is not typical for a sixteen-year-old to know himself or herself so well. Some things make Kanoa Kruse a very believable character. He is a deep, complex individual who has hopes and dreams just as everyone else does. He has a direction in life; an idea of what he wants to do with his future, a notion of what he wants his lifetime occupation to be. Because Kanoa is a human being, he does make mistakes. Whenever Kanoa makes a mistake, he learns and grows from the experience. Kanoa has changed over the years, as anyone does. At first, he started of as a person I passed by in the hallways. The first day I saw him, I was eleven. I didn’t know who he was, not even his name, the only thing I can remember thinking was, â€Å"oh, he’s cute†. He was 13, an eighth grader. Since I was a sixth grader, the â€Å"lowest class†, I didn’t make a single effort to know him; he was just a pretty face. A year passed and I made some new friends, one of my friends was a fair-haired, English boy named Jacob. Jacob and I began to talk a lot; one reoccurring topic of our conversation was Kanoa. Jacob told me that I would get along really well with Kanoa; the three of use should hang out sometime. I didn’t remember whom Jacob was talking about, I only knew Kanoa by face and not by name. Kanoa and I did not get to meet each other that year. In December 2007, I cut out my horoscope for that month out of a fashion magazine. My horoscope stated that on the twenty-sixth of this month, one of my close friends would try to hook me up with one of their friends. At the time, I just rolled my eyes and tacked the clipping to my corkboard, I didn’t believe, even in my wildest dreams that this horoscope would come true. On December 26, I woke up to the buzzing of my cellphone, it was my close friend Jacob, He told me that his friend Kanoa wanted to be â€Å"hooked up† with me. Jacob had been telling Kanoa about me and Kanoa wanted to give things a chance and see how they end up, I decided to accept his offer and get to know him. Since then, Kanoa and I have been dating. At first, he started of as a pretty face, then he became a friend of a friend and now he is one of the most important people to me, I know he will always be here for me when I need him.

Do Mergers and Acquisitions Fulfil Desired Objective?

Do Mergers and Acquisitions Fulfil Desired Objective? Do Mergers And Acquisitions Fulfil Their Desired Objective? And How People Are Affected By the Result of These Mergers? Dissertation Table of Contents CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND Restructuring of a firm has become a major area in the financial and economic environment all over the world. A company may grow internally, or externally. The aim of the management is to maximize the profit. Most firms grow through internally which take place when firm’s existing divisions grow through normal capital budgeting activities.(S.Vanitha 2007) The industrial restructuring has raised important issues both for the business and for public moreover merger and acquisitions may be critical to the strong expansion of business firms as they evolve through successive stages of growth and development and most important for new product markets by a firm may require M and As at some stages in the firm’s development . The successful competition in international markets may depend on capabilities obtained in a timely and competent fashion through M As. (M Selvam 2007) Merger and acquisitions continues to experience dramatic growth. Record breaking mega mergers have become popular in the world. In the last ten years and onwards some of the largest mergers and acquisitions took place in Europe. This was underscore by the fact that the largest deal of all time was a hostile acquisition of a German company by a British firm.(Beena P.L 2000) Since the start of twenty first century the nature of merger and acquisition even more common in the economical growth. It becomes even more global especially in Asia, Latin and South America. Over the past quarter of the century we have noticed that merger waves have become longer and more frequent in between shrunken as well when these trends combined with the fact that MA has rapidly spread across the modern world, we see that the field is increasingly becoming as ever more important part of the worlds of corporate finance and corporate strategy. (Canagavally , R.2000) Merger and acquisitions are plays very important part in corporate strategy. They are the interesting and controversial tools if the firm do not want to grow internally by capital investment and it can affect the shareholders wealth of both the firms (Legare.1998). The management of the target companies is worried about their jobs that can be affected; the cost reduction strategies consists of reduction in labour force (Gould, 1998) the strategies at both local and national levels are important and concerned at transactions in their industries. e.g (defence utilities etc.) Customers and suppliers are interested , as they want to know who they will be dealing with in the future (Buono. 2003). All the big deals are therefore reported in the media, receive a large coverage, and get the attention of the public as well. People are very important part of any organization but due to the increasing numbers of mergers between the companies they are largely affected and most of them get caught up in a merger or acquisition-by chance, Many of the people after working four –to five years period are losing their jobs and facing severe reductions in status and responsibility and, in general, being confronted with major questions about their careers, As a result , at times we are unsure whether our own feelings about what is happening to these individuals are biasing our interpretation of what is going on. In this project the writer going to research on mergers between the professional services firms. According to Steven et al (2000) mergers and acquisitions decisions that are undertaken based on financial analysis, influence and legal positions , However , it has been proved by a number of researchers that factors like informal power, low productivity , poor quality , reduced commitment , hidden costs and voluntary turnover prevent the combined banks from reaching expected performance levels (Legare 1998). This is the reason that many companies face difficulties then they pass through their post-integration processes (Buono 2003) According to Catwright Cary (1995) that mergers and acquisitions should be seen like marriages where both parties will is very important for the success of new entity. At the time two different companies decide to come together as a result of MA activity, then the levels of instability in the macro and micro environment of both companies is challenged. So it is therefore been recommended that companies should chose the most appropriate merger and acquisition process and strategy. However Buono (2003) has suggest that each possibility has its own strengths and weaknesses and therefore context of MS and its main objectives play important role. Cartwright and Cooper has pointed out that MA depends upon combination of related functions like integration of people, systems, practices and culture. The critical review of the literature has recommended that most of research has been focused at studying single characteristics of MA in isolation. Moreover the dynamics of MA variables that impact on success and failures ratio has not been undertaken in the literature and there is a gap for research. This study will be focus to explore the major drivers and variables and their effect on the success of merger and acquisitions across industries from a corporate strategic perspective. 1.2 Rationale behind Research: Mergers and acquisitions is one of the common strategies in today’s business world. Gould (1998) has conducted a survey involving 12000 managers from different countries and according to the result of his survey more then 1000 companies were involved in acquisitions or a merger in two years between 1995 and 1997.moreover merger and acquisitions has become the leading strategic options. However, the performance of the combined companies has been lower than expected. According to Buono (2003) the basic drivers of MA only involved in financial, operational and strategic aims and objectives. So therefore my main area of focus of this research is to explore the major drivers and variables and their effect on the success of merger and acquisitions across industries from a corporate strategic perspective. 1.3 Aims and Objectives: The basic aim of this project is to understand whether mergers and acquisitions always fulfil desired objective. The aims specific areas are as follows. To explore the major variables that impact on the success of merger and acquisition different industries from a corporate strategic perspective To explore the corporate strategy in achieving desired results from MA activities To evaluate the impact of the mergers on an employees and examining the programmes for dealing with separation anxiety for employees. 1.4 Dissertation Structure: The official Structure of the dissertations is being applied which is provided by the university and analysis has been done which suit the theme and the objectives of the research. The structure of this report is summarized as follows: Chapter 1 Introduction of the research topic and lays the basis for the rationale of selection of the theme under scrutiny. It introduces the effect of MA on business and effects that they expected. The chapter also summarizes the rationale for selection of topic and states the aim and objectives of this research. Chapter 2 Consists of review of the literature that has been produced in the domain of mergers and acquisitions and their desired effects for companies. It has highlighted some of the highly respected literature in the field of aims and objectives of this research. Chapter 3 Provide the methodology and strategy adopted by the researcher to undertake this research. It points out the strength and weaknesses of using different data collection mechanisms and has shown how they fit in the larger context of aims and objectives of this research. Chapter 4 very important chapter consists of analysis and findings regarding the importance of strategic alignment within a merger or an acquisition activity with the help of a range of case studies. The chapter developed recommendations for companies under the light of macro indicators, theories and qualitative data gathered through this research. Chapter 5 provides a comprehensive conclusion from this research and gives a list of recommendations for companies that can be drawn from this focused research. Chapter 2: Literature Review In this chapter an attempt has been made to briefly review the research already undertaken and methodology employed moreover the study has been produced in the domain of aims and objective of the project and it has been divided into number of different sections so that reader understand with ease. 2.1 Overview: Concept of Merger and Acquisition: Over the last few years different companies have engaged in domestic and international mergers and acquisitions to match the macroeconomic trends operating on a worldwide scale in the market place. Up till now the ultimate success of a company’s global strategy may depend on how well it manages the dangerous human resource â€Å"fit† issue associated with strategic customer cantered decisions and strategies. The literature presents the understanding and resolving interpersonal management issues that result from organization, team, and individual misalignments. An actual merger and acquisition integration project is used to discuss the application of this approach (Thomas L. Legare in his paper â€Å"Understanding and Managing Human Resource Integration Issue†) M A defined by Arnold (2002) as â€Å"combination of two firms of roughly equal size on roughly equal terms and in which the shareholders remain as joint owners† M A activities in late 20th century: In 1960’s Mergers and acquisitions first became an important topic within the organization management meetings. It is usual to consider merger and acquisition in terms of the extent to which the activities of the acquired organization are related to those of the acquirer. The most common classification proposes four main types (Walter 1985; Hovers, 1973; Kitching ,1967). These being: 1- Vertical The process in which two organizations combined within the same industry. 2- Horizontal The process in which two similar organizations combined within the same industry 3- Conglomerate In this process acquired organization is in completely different field of business activity 4 Concentric In this process the acquired organization is in a different but related field in to which the acquiring company merge its business. According to Schweiger and Ivancevice, 1987 mergers and acquisitions can be considered to differ in terms of Motive and transactional type The envisaged degree of integration Common objectives behind M Activity According to Napier (1989), in a review of the literature, draws the distinction between financial or value maximizing motives, and managerial or non value maximizing motives. Mergers known as financial or value maximizing motives when the main objective is to increase the profit and decrease the risk involved in business moreover non value maximizing motives relate to merges which occur primarily for other strategic reasons ( Halpern, 1983). Moreover according to handy (1993) creation of shareholder’s value is the underlying aim behind any MA activity. However , there is a range of strategies involve to improve financial performances and consequently increase shareholder’s value. According to Marks, (1988b). There is lots of risk involved in activity like Mergers and acquisitions involving the collective annual investment of billions of pounds and affecting the working lives of millions of employees. It has been recommended in future that 50 to 80 percent of all mergers are considered to be financially unsuccessful (Marks 1988b), most probably in financial return, represent ‘at best an each way bet’ (Lorenz, 1986) The popularity of Merger and acquisitions is still strong despite of the fact that it has been frequently fail to achieve the financial growth (Hovers 1973 Farrent 1970; Jemison and Sitkin, 1986). Indeed there is lots of evidence that Britain and the USA are currently experiencing an unprecedented wave of merger activity (Morgan, 1988; Hughes, 1989). In the last 10 years , there have been over 23000 registered acquisitions in the USA , and before the end of this decade one in four of the Us workforce will have been affected by merger activity ( Fulmer, 1986) with the approach of 1992 , a similar trend is predicted for Europe. The Merger and acquisition is facilitated by number of factors. Market Conditions Market conditions are changing day by day and in this environment there is a need to consolidate or capture new market so strategic mergers and acquisitions become more attractive and expedient alternative response to the setting up new outlets, and at the same time provide a tool to finish the competition ( Meeks , 1977) Increasing Availability of Capital Mergers and acquisitions activities has been increased because the organization and financial institution may need of capital from outside countries because of low interest rate. More companies for sale. There are lots of companies come in to the market because of number of reasons like successful entrepreneurs of the post war years reach retirement age , because of families issues and there is not natural successor within the family. The Easing of Regulations. According to McManus Hergert, 1988. Gartrell Yantek suggested that acquisition activity is related to political climate in that right of centre administration stimulate activity. The Need to share Risk Mergers and acquisitions is very important if u need to share risk like new product development often results in the formation of joint ventures , mergers and other types of strategic alliance. The existence of complex Indivisible Problems All of these can be considered to be logical economic and marketing factors, which make possible the decisions to acquire, These conditions , particularly the need to share risk and problems solving, have also contributing to the increasing trend towards the formation of joint ventures and Mergers (Harrigan, 1988) (vii) Unrecognized Psychological Motives According to Levinson (1970) suggests one such motive to be fear of risk McManus and Hergest (1988) suggest that the decisions happens when ‘CEO is bored and wants to find a new game to play’ or to create some excitement amongst senior managers (Hunt, 1988) 2.2 Impact of Mergers and Acquisitions Merger and Acquisitions have the prime aim to maximise the firm’s profit and shareholders wealth like any other strategic growth option, but there has been a risk of failure so the debate in the literature among theorists and practitioners as to the real strength of the strategy in creating shareholder’s value worth the risk of failure. The review literature that surrounds different prospects like shareholders, acquirer , targets has been studied on short , medium and long term value creation through the MA activity . The following different categories of studies can be highlighted. Affect of MA Activities on People The Human Side of Mergers and Acquisitions is about to impact that mergers and acquisitions have on people in the workplace: the psychological difficulties that people experience, the culture clashes that can emerge in organizations that can emerge in organizations during the post –merger integration period, and the ways in which these problems can manifest themselves –such as communication breakdowns a â€Å"We-they† mentality between the component organizations in a merger, lowered commitment , drops in productivity , organizational power struggles and office politicking , and loss of key organizational members. We adopt primarily and organization development (OD) perspective on mergers and acquisitions: given the myriad problems (Thomas L Legare) The Existing evidence on the effects of mergers and acquisitions on efficiency or value comes from two basic types of large sample studies: event studies and performance studies Event studies consider the returns to the shareholders of targets and acquirers in the days before and after an acquisition announcement .These studies consistently find that the combined returns to acquirer and target stockholders are unequivocally positive .These positive returns imply that the market anticipates that acquisitions on average will create value. These studies and reactions do not, however, provide insight into the sources of the value changes in mergers or whether the expectations of value changes are ultimately realized. Furthermore, the combined returns cover a broad range of responses from very positive to very negative. Cross sectional analyses of event period returns provide some evidence that the broad range of combined announcement period returns reflects the market’s ability to forecast an acquisitions success. For example both Mitchell and Lehn (1990) and Kaplan and weisbach (1992) find the there is a relation between (1) acquirer and combined returns and (2) the ultimate outcome of the acquisition. Other studies examine a number of different determinants of the cross-sectional variation in returns associated with acquisitions. (see e.g Lang , Stulz, and Walkling 1991 . Maloney , McCormick , and Mitchell 1993; morock, Shliefer , and Vishny 1990)These Cross-Sectional analyses of event –period returns provide some understanding of the nature of the market reaction to acquisition announcements.They do not , however , examine whether the anticipated value creation or improved productivity materializes, Nor do they have a great deal to say about the organizational mechanisms and manage ment practices that drive acquisition success or failure. Studies of post merger performance attempt to measure the longer-term implications of mergers and acquisitions using both accounting and stock return data. Studies of accounting data fail to find consistent evidence of improved performance or productivity gains. (see e.g, Healy , Palepu, and Ruback 1992 and Ravenscraft and Scherer 1987) similarly , studies that focus on acquirers long term stock performance find mixed results abnormally negative stock returns after the acquisition ( agraqwal , Jaffe, and Mandelker 1992), no abnormal returns (franks , Harris , and Titman 1991) and negative abnormal returns only for stock mergers (Mitchell and Stafford 1996) Like the announcement period event studies, longer term performance and event studies document substantial cross sectional variation in performance , but do not study the sources of value changes in mergers and acquisitions. In sum , there are a number of questions that the existing economics and finance literature on mergers and acquisitions leaves unanswered , Existing work provides mixed results on the average impact of mergers and acquisitions More importantly , existing work offers little insight into the determinants of an acquisitions success or failures. Research on the basis of Capital Market Capital market is one of the research category used as central information point. According to Healey (1992), the stock market data reflects the effects of MA as it reflects future profits and dividends expected by the post integration entity moreover these researchers believe that the result has been found swayed by the researcher’s personal orientation an hypothesis. It is been analyse that majority among studies that have been covered lower then desired effects created through analyses based on capital market data. Event Study Methodology According to data et al (1992) have indicated that these studies are based on the hypothesis that markets across the industrialized world are highly well-organized and therefore soon after the MAn announcement moreover it depends on the future financial benefits or losses. The result of such studies have highlighted the majority of MA activities do create affects that can range from significant to normal (Sudarsanam 2003) but the people working along with the field and many other critics have argued that the methodology is only affective for small projects to obtain the desired affects and does not represent long term desired affects in the medium to long term. Short Run Objectives: A large number of organizations plan for financial gains within a short period of time when the merger date is finalized they are looking to achieve this objective, 30% and 10% abnormal returns have been found for the target shareholders Sudarsanam et al (1996) Long Run Objectives According to Agarwar (1992) the organizations long term desired affect through MA activity that has gained an increasing interests among researchers after the data is available for the last wave of MA in the 1990’s. There has been a mixture of results as- 10% abnormal returns over 5 years MA periods; Fama French (1993) showed positive 9% abnormal returns for the acquired and negative -4% abnormal returns for the acquirer; and sudarsanam Mahate 2003 showed a range of negative -18% to positive+1% abnormal returns in MA situation. Although it has been found out that many of these studies have used different models, benchmarks and organizational data, but there is a general consensus that MA abnormal desired affects in the long term. Operational Planning Research: The best way to analyse the affect of MA activity is to study the operational performance of the firms involved. The operational data consists of accounting data like cash flow and profit and loss statement are used by such studies (Healey 1992) Herman and Lowenstein (1988) used these technique on data gathered during 1975 to 1983 and found that no significant improvements in the performance of post MA entities. Healey et al (1992) found a meagre 3% operational performance among companies analyzed. However the same data was later analyzed under improved methods and found no operational performance. The results show large number of failures in creating substantial desired affects through operational analysis. Recent Merger and Acquisitions trends In the above table shows the recent trends in the field, let us being with our full dissertation of the subject of MA. This will be begin with a discussion of the basic terminology used in the field. 2.3 MAJOR STRATEGIC ISSUES: According to Cartwright and Cooper (1995) in order to get the desired objective during the MA activity the internal environment of firms should be synchronized. It can therefore recommend that integration of people, their systems, procedures, practice and organizational culture is extremely important in order to get the desired objective. Mr David (2007) suggest that the internal aspects of firms that are going to merge can be divided into two core competencies that can help to minimize the factors involved the failure of MA strategies. These core competencies lie in the field of corporate strategy which usually lack coordination during MA activities. The main limiting aspects of MA in terms of strategic importance that can play a vital role by using their core competencies have been highlighted as follows Organizational culture The cultural differences is the single largest cause of lack of proposed performance, achieving the desired target and objective and time consuming issues in the running of successful business ( Bijilsma frankema , 2001) according to him culture plays a important part in employees motivation in the development to new business he says that cultural clash is the most dangerous factors when two companies decide to combine moreover the things like styles , values and missions is the part of factor influencing the MA. According to (Covin et al, 1997) the employees required five to seven years after the merger to feel truly incorporated. Due to the multitude of these changes many problems arises like loss of job, also financial debt and fears of jobless.(Mirvis and Marks 1992) moreover he says that after merger the new team is also distressing and anxiety for the people other fear include the loss of effective and close team members, as well as the uncertainty about the new team members and supervisors to be inherited the employees when forced to deal with new team members and managers they may develop fears of taking risks and raising sensitive subject. This may adopt us verses them thinking, where trust for the new team members will be minimal (Mirvis and Marks, 1992).Management facing this kind of behaviour may have to pay the high price of loss of coordination and initiative among the employees of the new business combination. Moreover the issues and disagreement will be more difficult to resolve, so the time after the merger is the most difficult time for the management and new team members to move forward as a whole. Appelbaum etal, (2000) Stress According to (Datta et al , 1992) the process of merger and acquisitions consists of biggest change at the individual and organizational level in the history of organizations because of this the process is stressful. When one culture combines with another the employees feel as through they have lost control over important aspects of their loves, and in an attempt to regain control, they often withdraw. So it creates stress within individual , i.e reduced performance and job satisfaction . ( Berger and Ofec 1996) According to Schweiger Denisi (1991) the employees after the MA go through a time of increased anxiety uncertainty and stress. They are concerned about their new position it will create more stress in them so communication plays the vital role during the merger so that employees know what is going on and how they might be affected during and after the post integration period. Thus it can be suggested that while negotiations have been compared to flirting before marriages , and the closing of the deals to forming a new family , employees reaction can be associated with â€Å"bereavement† (Katinka , 2004) Organizational change and resistance Changes after merger announcement like stress, symptoms, work related factors, health status, and lifestyle. Personal characteristics were composed of age, sex, height, weight, and marital status in both surveys. Moreover stress related symptoms like anxiety, impatience and depression were dichotomized by either having a complaint or not so following a MA , a complex set of organizational , managerial and personal changes or inevitable. Jensen Rubock (1983) claim that in order to cope with the changes and resist with the changes there is a way to select a strategy and a set of specific approaches for implementing an organizational change effort. It is very important for managers to implement changes successfully in order to cope with the changes. The researchers have introduced six different strategies in order resist the changes after the merger and four major reasons why peoples resist changes. Image, Identity and confidence According to (Ravenscraft and Scherer 1988) image , identity and confidence of the human resource may reduced after the combination process it has been send that most of the employees will feel uncertain and will need some relaxation environment . It can be recommended that the peoples effected by this process can prove dangerous for the management they can change the ownership moreover the employees who are affected by the process tend to protect their identity and confidence through tolerance and humble and hence they try to maintain their status and confidence with experience that they are the part of new entity, if the cultural factor is not adequately taken into account at this stage of the merger , there will be so less time to contain it after the merger. Weston et al (2001) discuss the fear and stress associated with a merger. Schwert (1996) argue that when the objectives after the merger are not met , the managing teams of both companies are the employees of the acquired company enter a â€Å"cycle of escalating and distrust†. In other words, managers of the acquiring company press for increased control, while employees of the acquired company resist and demand their autonomy. Others view mergers and acquisitions as power games , which create some excitement fro bored CEOs. Communication Tompkins (1984) defined organizational communication as â€Å"the study of sending and receiving messages that create and maintain a system of deliberately corresponding activities or forces of two or more persons† Organizational communication is the exchange of messages through collective creation maintenance and transformation of organizational meaning. Members develop commonly understood patterns of expectations of organizational action through communication. Moreover communication with the employees is a very important factor throughout the entire MA process and creates a positive effect on employees through the trying time. According to John et al (1999) that communication plays a vital role in the combination of different and various cultures. The cultures can be at conflicting ends and therefore should be understood by the top management during integration period moreover according to Richard et al (1999) the human resource department should plan for the change in organization and they should know before this process that what going to happen with the company when two cultures combine as the result of merger. So in the process of merger only decision is not enough but the proper communication of these decisions among the company is very important moreover management works horizontally and vertically through leadership, control and organization.(Sudarsanam and Mahate, 2003) FLOW OF CASH Despite of the fact that many people loss their job in the process but the same time high rate of voluntary turnover linked with the process moreover it includes substantial outflow of talent and expertise. According to Ravenscraft and scherer, 1988) report executive turnover rates as high as 75% in the first three years of post acquisition period. Unplanned personnel losses are not necessarily confined to the more senior levels of the organization. Typically, acquired or merged organizations experience on overall rate of staff turnover of at lest 30% in the first two years post merger period (Cartwright and Cooper 1995) 2.4 Success and Failures A large number of mergers and acquisitions are unsuccessful .Over the last fifteen years, 23% of all merged firms worldwide reported lower profits than comparable non-merged firms (Gugler et al.(13)) Daimler Chrysler, the effect of the largest industrial merger ever, for example , has only posted low or negative profits since its birth in 1998-including the biggest loss in German business history in 2001. The disappointing results of mergers have been puzzling commentators and academics alike. In the management literature, poor merger performance has often been connected to unsuccessful addition of different corporate cultures. Cultural differences, however, are not enough to explain failures. First, firms seem to be aware of organisational difficulties when taking merger decisions. DaimlerChrysler, for example, anticipated post –merger Challenges. Second, mergers between partners with closer corporate cultures sometimes perform worse ( Morosini et

Conflict Management :: Conflict Process Model, McShane, Von Glinow

Introduction In order of being able to analyze the sources of conflicts regarding the clothing manufacturer, I will present the Conflict Process Model according to McShane and Von Glinow. Therefore, I will first define what conflicts are, and second present the different sources of conflicts and carve out which conflicts are involved regarding to the given case. The third step is to explain two different strategies to minimize these conflicts in future. Finally, I will provide a recommendation and conclusion. The Conflict Process Model – Sources of Conflicts and Conflict Management According to McShane and Von Glinow, conflict is â€Å"a process in which one party perceives that his or her interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party† (328). The Conflict Process Model begins with the different sources of conflict; these sources lead one or more parties to perceive that a conflict exists. These perceptions interact with emotions and manifest themselves in the behavior towards other parties. The arrows in the figure illustrate the series of conflict episodes that cycle into conflict escalation (McShane and Von Glinow 331-332). Figure 3 Model of the Conflict Process Source: McShane and Von Glinow 332. This model distinguishes six possible sources of conflict that may arise: incompatible goals, differentiation, interdependence, scarce resources, ambiguous rules, and communication problem (McShane and Von Glinow 332-333). Incompatible goals involves that â€Å"the goal of one person or department seem to interfere with another person’s or department’s goal† (McShane and Von Glinow 333). Differentiation is described as the â€Å"difference among people, departments, and other entities regarding their training, values, beliefs, and experiences† (McShane and Von Glinow 333). Interdependence â€Å"occurs where individuals operate interdependently except for reliance on a common source or authority† (McShane and Von Glinow 335). Scarce Resources are a source of conflict when several persons or units require the same recourse to fulfill their goals. Ambiguous Rules occur as a source of conflict because â€Å"uncertainty increases the risk that one party intends to interfere with the other party’s goals† (McShane and Von Glinow 335). Communication Problems are a source of conflict â€Å"due to the lack of opportunity, ability, or motivation to communicate effectively† (McShane and Von Glinow 333). One of the major sources of the conflicts, regarding to the given case, is incompatible goals: â€Å"the new executives clashed with the current executives regarding business strategy† another evidence for that is that the CEO says they 'ended up with an old team and a new team and they weren't on the same wavelength'.

Chinese Shih Poetry And Philosophy Essay -- essays research papers

Since the beginning of time, man has sought to explain the world around him. This is called philosophy, a Greek word which means "love of wisdom." However, over the millennia it has come to mean much more. The philosophies of the ancient Chinese people, whether they explain nature or present ways to live a just life, became so complex that simple prose could not suitably express their meaning. Yet paradoxically, the simpler, less exact form of poetry does put forth the ideas. Nowhere is this more exemplified than in the literature pertaining to the two major schools of ancient Chinese thought; Taoism and Confucianism. Poets such as Tu Fu and Po Chà ¼-i expressed the ideas of Taoism and Confucianism, respectively, while their fellow poet T’ao Ch’ien expressed both, through their poetry. Confucianism is based on the ideas of Confucius, the man who gave the school of thought its name. The main goal of Confucianists was to return a gentlemanly society to China. The core of Confucianism concerned social structure. Confucius taught that a man should respect and obey those of higher rank than himself, whether they be the father of a family, or the emperor of a nation. But even with absolute obedience, Confucianists believed that men should practice restraint and benevolence in those inferior to them. At the same time, those in high status were expected to lead virtuous lives, and to set examples for those that followed them. Confucianists believed that the moral code of man was set down by heaven, and if those in positions of authority did not set good examples, then they would deposed by the forces of heaven. One of the first great Chinese poets to write of Confucianism was T’ao Ch’ien. T’ao Ch’ien’s poem Substance, Shadow, and Spirit shows a comparison between Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, and the views on life and death of each. A clear example of Confucian beliefs can be taken from this poem. He states, "Let us strive and labor while yet we may / To do some deed that men will praise." This clearly demonstrates the fact that Confucianists do not believe in reincarnation. Also, in his Poem on Returning to Dwell in the Country, T’ao Ch’ien writes, "In the same world men lead different lives; / Some at the court, some in the marketplace." These lines illustrate that for every man there is a place in an ... ...orld around him, which was full of chaos and turmoil. In the final section of the poem Substance, Shadow, and Spirit he discusses the Taoist view, which is that one should not worry about death, but should "go where Fate leads – Drift on the Stream of Infinite Flux" and "make as little fuss as you can," when death finally comes. His Poem on Returning to Dwell in the County also shows Taoist ideas on simplicity, and following the way of nature. Passages such as "Long I have loved to stroll among the hills and marshes, / And take my pleasure roaming the woods and fields," demonstrate the Taoist love for nature. Poets such as Po Chà ¼-i presented the ideas of in a form that better impacted the common man, and carried their ideas crystal clear to the intellectuals. His fellow poets, T’ao Ch’ien and Tu Fu presented images of nature so intense, that the reader could gain a sense of calm from reading their poems. These poems have passed the test of time, and have not weathered the slightest. The followers of these schools were gifted enough to state their beliefs in poetry so vivid that they still enlighten lovers of wisdom today.

The Application of Utopia in Brave New World Essay -- Brave New World

The Application of Utopia in Brave New World      Ã‚   Aldous Huxley's Brave New World illustrates the loss of morality when established standards are replaced by amoral criteria.   In his novel, Huxley criticizes the practical applications of Utopia in actual society. Huxley's depiction of love, science, and religion support the ineffectiveness of implementing Utopia in everyday life.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Brave New World, Huxley shows contempt for the human emotion of love.   The people that make up his imaginary society have no conception of love or any other passion, and actually scorn the idea.   Huxley believes that along with passion comes emotional instability.   The Utopian state cannot afford any kind of instability and therefore cannot afford love.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The destruction of the family is one example of the effect of Utopia's absence of love.   In a world of bottled-births, not only is there no need for a family, but the idea is actually considered obscene.   The terms "mother" and "father" are extremely offensive and are rarely used except in science.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Huxley uses Mustapha Mond, the World Controller, to portray the vulgarity when he explains the obscenity of life before Utopia to a group of students:    And home was as squalid psychically as physically.   Psychically, it was a rabbit hole, a midden, hot with the frictions of tightly packed life, reeking with emotion.   What suffocating intimacies, what dangerous, insane, obscene relationships between the members of the family group! (37)      Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In an earlier passage, Huxley shows the effects of Mond's explanation on one boy, "The Controller's evocation wa... ... without   religion or a god.   This belief is portrayed throughout the novel.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Brave New World presents a frightening view of a future civilization which has forgotten current morals and standards.   Instead of humans controlling science and their lives, science controls humans, and World Controllers decide all rules which are intended to mold society into a stable community.   Huxley's criticism of this community portrays the impractical application of Utopia in actual society.    Sources Cited and Consulted "Aldous Huxley:   Brave New World?"   http://www.huxley.net/ pp.   1-36. Birnbaum, M.   Aldous Huxley's Quest For Values.   Univ. of Tennessee Press, 1971. Firchow, P. E. The End of Utopia.   Associated Univ. Presses, Inc., N.J.:   1984. Huxley, Aldous.   Brave New World.   New York: Harper Collins, 1989.